Public education reform: Community or national funding of education Essay

Soares presents an article that draws on a political economy model of public funding as a tool to assess the education implications of moving from a community-to nation-wide funding policy. His intention is to widen the source for the finance of education that will redistribute funds both at the intra-generational and inter-generational levels. Previous literature has focused on the intra-generational redistribution effects of going from a local to state funded approach. Instead, Soares suggests a model of education reform that would see funding include the social security system and would allow factor prices to vary. Such flexibility would benefit welfare effects to students by enlarging the funding net in the form of a nation-wide system. Significant welfare gains that would occur with a nation-wide system are supported by other research (Soares, 2006; Wasser & Picken, 1996). Soares also reflects on his previous writings on the important roles of altruism and self-interest in influencing the political decisions of public education policy. He points to the inter-relationship of three main factors in determining how policy will be formed; altruism; the impact of public funding of education of the social security system; and the impact of these factors on factor prices. In conclusion, Soares article depicts a critical issue in education reform that has been ongoing for many years: How to source optimal continual funding for education that does not detract from the welfare of the wider population? He provides a viable alternative to funding. At present most States provide fewer dollars to minority and low-income students. A nation-wide funding policy would ensure that the funding gaps which exist across schools in the USA would be narrowed, providing equality of access to learning opportunities and resources. This would align with the recent No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.

Nature Ralph Walden Emerson and Henry David Thoreau Walden

SELDA PUR 2009105153 ‘NATURE’ AND ‘WALDEN’ ‘Nature’ and ‘Walden’ are two art works basically giving the similar messages to the readers. Their writers are different but one of the things which make these works similar is Henry David Thoreau is affected by Ralph Waldo Emerson’s works and ideas very much. Secondly, their essays are both inspired from transcendentalism movement. Finally, their theme are both the same, they deal with mainly the idea of ‘nature’. While comparing these two essays, it is better to look at them deeper separately. Nature is an essay written by Ralph Waldo Emerson and published in 1836.The importance of this work is that transcendentalism arose with this art of work. Transcendentalism is mainly a combination of reason and emotion; in a more detailed way, transcendentalism is about self-reliance. One has to look into herself/himself and turn her/his face to the nature, purity and has to be away from society, and their mind is supposed not to be full of organized believes and political theories. This movement became a leading aspect in literature with the publication of Nature; therefore, when analyzing the work ‘Nature’, the main features of transcendentalism will be encountered and understood better.In Nature, Emerson explains the relationship between man and nature. In the nature, every object is simple and sign of wisdom. In earth, as living creatures, people have pleasures and this is not only because they are human but also due to the nature. When people look at nature, they realize the perfectness, happiness of the nature. They realize the existence of God. Nature makes people realize that they are a part of God. In nature, everything is designed for humanity. People get benefits from nature. Everything in it is interconnected and they serve to people.By this perception, Emerson also implies that nature is alive, surrounding and serving to human. By his transcendentalist perception, Emerson also implies everything that human is need of is in nature, so people must look at and live the nature, they must be purified from dirtiness of the society and industry. Emerson also defines beauty in Nature. Beauty must be searched in the nature. Beauty is the pleasure of perceiving the nature. Emerson links the morality and nature because all two has extreme purity. God give people virtue and intellect. With these features, people can reach the beauty, the ruthiness of nature. Emerson sees these values as a part of nature, and man can be relieved only in nature. Nature connects people to each other. As a living aspect, nature has a language. Language is a combination of systematic symbols. Also nature has symbols in it. People use these symbols to be able to understand each other and the nature. In other words, nature provides people communication. According to Emerson, man and nature are in interconnection. They are dependent, if man beh aves nature in a good way, so the nature serves the man in a best way.Therefore, man has to follow the nature, has to take nature’s purity, its moral values. Nature is a present for man from God. Man uses nature to find his spirit, truth, morality and values. With the help of nature, man can get rid of earthly devilry. Nature is the last place of destination. Man came from the nature and will go to the nature again. Nature is a server of man. It is pure and stainless. If man can reach this purity, he can find his soul. If man gets rid of the society’s destroyed values and environment and keep the nature pure, nature will serve humanity in its best way.As mentioned above, Emerson expresses his feelings about in a reasonable way. It can be seen that Emerson used both emotion and reason in his essays, which is related to transcendentalism movement. Also, in aspect of the theme, it is obvious that Emerson focuses on the self-reliance and its relation to the nature. He deal s with the nature and man in a detailed way and connects these features to each other in a sensible way. Briefly, Emerson writes how the nature serves to man, how man use the nature to live in morality and purity. ‘Walden’ is written by Henry David Thoreau and published in 1854.This art of work is a product of a real experience and inspired by the transcendentalism movement. Not only his writing style is inspired by transcendentalism but also Thoreau applied this movement, idea in his life style and wanted to experience this idea. It can be said that transcendentalism is not only an idea for Thoreau, but it is also must be put into practice in real life and this shows his pragmatic approach. Thoreau by living in a cabin for two years near Walden Pond which is formally owned by Emerson wanted to create his own perception of society and nature.He focused on simple ways of living and self-sufficiency. He decided to direct his life in this way when he encountered Emersonâ⠂¬â„¢s works. He liked the idea, movement ‘transcendentalism’ and actually practiced it. Living with no money and alone, only with nature and understanding the society by this way was his main goal. He shared his experiences in his book Walden. He did not live in a wild environment as he mentioned also in his book, he lived near the town near a lake. He pragmatically wanted to see if living in this simplicity is really good or not.In Walden, he firstly explains his plans for this two-year life in a cabin. In this simple life, he has just food, shelter, clothes and fuel. He supplies these with the help of his friends and family. In his work, he criticizes his neighbors who dedicate their lives to working for a better living. However, he, himself, also works for building his house and growing plants. He writes everyday in this house in addition to daily routines like cleaning land, preparing and growing food. He reads many books and wishes a utopian world in which people are educated very well so the all of the people would be noble and wise.One of the aspects Thoreau argued in his book is that transcendentalism is not only an idea and it is something also that must be lived, experienced and put into life. He explains his life in this cabin within the perspective of transcendentalism. He is delighted with the beauty of nature and his basic, simple daily routines. He is delighted with not being in a rush, not being governed by money. Nature helps him to gain a more pure, clear, moral perspective and to analyze the real life by comparing it with his simple life. As a result, he criticizes the city life and its effects on the nature.Society and industry ruins the beauty and purity of the nature. For example, he is interrupted by the voices coming from trains, railway. Railway is a symbol of city life which is ruining the nature and its natural way. His being alone along these two years is beneficial according to Thoreau, because he thinks that his soli tude made him closer to the nature. He is left to his own resources in nature and the nature is the only friend of him. He has the opportunity of analyzing the nature and his desolation in the nature makes his pastoral way of life morally upright.Thoreau wanted to experience this because he wanted to escape from civilization and experience the purity of nature. He wanted to see whether or not he could live without luxury. However, what he did in Walden is also writing and reading a lot. Like Emerson does in Nature, Thoreau also talks about the goodness of nature, being solitude and being close to the nature. They both state that man need to live in purity to relief and reach the happiness and to be able to purified from the society. They both criticize the bad effects of society n nature, they both represent that society and industry ruins the purity and clarity of the nature. They both criticize the materialist way of living. However, in Walden it can be seen that Thoreau tries to find a way to connect civilization and nature in a pure concept. The main difference between Emerson and Thoreau is that Thoreau is pragmatics in his belief of ‘transcendentalism’. Emerson supports this idea but does not put into action. Also, while Thoreau explains transcendentalism on the basis of his real experiences, Emerson explains it only in a theoretical way.Therefore, while Emerson only talks about the nature’s purity and society’s devilry, Thoreau also tries to find a middle course between nature and society to some point. This can be because Thoreau is more realistic and he does critics on the basis of his own experiences. Emerson and Thoreau criticized the society and industry in the same way. They both state that it ruins the nature. They both state that desolation provides people to be closer with the nature and to analyze the nature and society.Desolation makes people understand that they are a part of the nature and the nature gives its pur ity to people and people must not pollute this purity by society and industry. They both use emotion and reasoning in their writings and explain things in a sensible way. However, their style is different. While Thoreau uses a more complicated language which is full of metaphors, paradoxes, sarcasm, irony, oxymoron, Emerson uses a more simple language and Emerson becomes more understandable and ‘Nature’ becomes easier to read when compared to ‘Walden’.Another point that must be assessed while comparing these art works must be that while Emerson puts forth the movement transcendentalism himself, Thoreau is the one who is inspired by this transcendentalism philosophy. It can be observed that by trying to look into deeper the idea of transcendentalism, Thoreau reflects the idea in a more realistic way. This is also because of the Thoreau’s pragmatic approach to the idea. Both these works have similarities more than differences, because the writers both have the same desire, they both criticize the materialism but supports the idea ‘transcendentalism’.

Mitten Manufacturing Ltd

Generally, mergers occur for the purpose of improving financial performance or shareholders – making the likelihood of this potential merger ideal. Angela has offered to sell ML to John for the book value of equity, based on the 2014 year. MUMS financial Statements are in accordance with FIRS. John has asked for our help as professional accountants with the firm of Label and Liana ALP (L&L) to assist in determining an estimate of the purchase price. In order to do so we must first address the accounting issues with Mil's current financial statements.It should be noted that Mil's financial statements were prepared for internal purposes and have not been audited. John will want Mil's financial statements to be accurate before agreeing to Angel's suggested purchase price so that he is not overpaying. He will also want accurate financial statements to accurately determine Mil's debt/equity ratio, going concern, and other important ratios/factors. Angela may be biased towards keepi ng her current balance sheet numbers as they most likely overvalue assets and undervalue liabilities, making the sale of her ownership a better deal for her, but not necessarily a better deal for John.As John's accountants we must approach this conservatively in order to ensure that he is not overpaying for the company, focusing primarily on the book value of equity which is to be the selling price. Analysis and Recommendations Issue: $500,000 loss ML experienced a loss of $500,000 during the year which could be due to problems with operations or Accounts Receivable collection. This may have encouraged Angela to bias the numbers to make ML look better to potential buyers. This loss should be kept in mind when reviewing the following issues.While this is a one-time event, working capital, inventory turnover, and debt ratios should be considered when determining the company's future sustainability. This loss will decrease or has decreased shareholders equity by $500,000. The loss may be a positive for John as he will be able to carry forward the loss to a positive net income in the next twenty years, which can potentially reduce Mil's future taxable income. Should John decide to carry forward this loss, the journal entry should kick like the following: 1) Dry. Deferred tax asset 500,000 Cry.Income tax benefit Issue: How to account for the new lease agreement Capital Lease Operating Lease Under FIRS, one of four classification criteria must be met in order to be lassie as a Capital Lease: 1) Reasonably assured that ownership will transfer to lessee at end of lease term 2) Lessee gets substantially all economic benefits from using the leased asset over the lease term 3) Lesser recovers substantially all investment, and earns a rate of return 4) Leased asset is specialized and can only be used by lessee According to the terms of Mil's new lease agreement: 1) Yes, under the assumption that the Bargain Purchase Option of $4,500 will be exercised 2) No, lessee only us es 50% of economic life – not considered substantial as there is still 50% of its life left for economic benefits to be aimed 3) Yes, because the IV of Minimum Lease Payments (where 1=9%, N=5, and is equal to $88,000, which is 100% of the IV of the asset at January 1 , 2014 4) NINA.Information was not provided to answer this The lease meets both the first and third classification criteria Capital Leases must record the asset and liability, depreciation of the asset, and interest expense following the effective interest method Under FIRS, one will account for a lease as operating if the risk and benefits of ownership of the leased asset are not transferred to the lessee If a lease does not meet any of the criteria necessary for a Capital Lease, then it will be ported as an Operating Lease Operating Leases are accounted for as a rental expense After considering the two alternatives, it is clear that the new lease agreement must be recorded in Mil's books as a Capital Lease. Thi s is due to two of the four Capital Lease classification criteria being met, which do not allow for the company to record it as an Operating Lease. The following journal entries should have been entered throughout 2014: 01/01/14: 1) Dry. Lease Equipment Obligation 88,000 88,000 2) or. Lease Obligation Cry. Lease 24,066. 26 Cry. Cash 12/31/14: 3) Dry. Interest Expense 3,057. 02 4) Dry. Amortization Expense Cry. Accumulated Amortization 3,057. 02 Cry.Interest payable 4,400 While there are more incentives to classifying a lease as operating such as tax incentives, higher return on asset, and better solvency ratios, the lease must be classified as a Capital Lease so as to stay in accordance with FIRS. However, a Capital Lease does provide a company with a higher operating cash flow, and reduces Net Income, which potentially reduces income taxes. A lower Net Income will result in a lower shareholder's equity. Issue: Entries to reflect changes in the plan asset and liability for current y ear FIRS ASPS FIRS requires that the same discount rate is used for plan asset and liability and the immediate recognition approach must be used.Therefore, using the Projected Benefit Obligation method, and using a 10% discount rate, the Plan Liability would be: $ 694,969 + 35,000 + 69,497 – 40,000 = $759,466 And the Plan Asset, using the 10% actual return on plan assets, would be: $ 525,000 + 52,500 = $537,500 Making the Defined Benefit Obligation: $ 537,500 – 759,466 ($221,966) The Pension Expense: $ 35,000 – 52,500 = $ 51 ,997 And the Net Defined Benefit Liability: – (169,969) = ($ 51 ,997) ASPS allows for either the immediate recognition approach or the deferral and amortization approach ASPS also allows for the expected return on plan assets to be different from the discount rate used for the Accrued Benefit Obligation No calculations are necessary for the ASPS alternative of this issue, as they would not be in accordance with FIRS with which ML must follow. Therefore, in accordance with FIRS, we will account for the changes in the plan asset and liability as stated above.Please note that the Accrued Benefit Obligation (ABA) will be referred to as the Defined Benefit Obligation (DB), s we are working under FIRS rather than ASPS. Following the restriction that the same discount rate (1 0% in this case) be used for both plan asset and liability, the following journal entries should be made to account for the changes for the current year: 12/31/14: 1) Dry. Pension Expense Cry. Net Defined Benefit Liability 51,997 51 ,997 This increase in Net Defined Liability will decrease Shareholder's Equity. Issue: Depreciation of Capital Assets The depreciation of capital assets must be taken out of the provision for income taxes included in the financial statements for the current period.This depreciation is to be included in taxable income, not accounting income and will incorrectly state Mil's provision for income taxes if not removed. The CA amount needed to be removed is equal to x 30% $1 this amount will be deducted from the taxable income. The removal of $1 from the provision for income taxes will increase net income, subsequently increasing shareholders equity. Issue: How to account for the Super Shopper Account Receivable Estimate Unconvertible Receivables Writing Off Accounts Receivable There are two methods to estimate unconvertible receivables: 1) Balance Sheet Method – uses past collection experiences to estimate unconvertible amounts.ML could estimate the amount required for Allowance for Doubtful Accounts as a percentage of the balance in Accounts Receivable. Using an aged receivables analysis, ML could forecast a percentage of estimated unconvertible Accounts Receivables accounts over 90 days old. The journal entry would look similar to the following: Dry. Bad Debts Expense Cry. Allowance for Doubtful Accounts xx 2) Income Statement Method – estimates cost of bad debts as a percentage of Sal es. Mil's journal entry using this method would look the same as the Balance Sheet Method journal entry. If ML determines Super Shoppers account specifically to be unconvertible, they may use the Allowance Method for writing off accounts.The following journal entry would be made: Dry. Allowance for Doubtful Cry. Accounts Receivable -? Super Shopper Should the payment be received after the write – off, the account can be reinstated using the following journal entries: 1) Dry. Accounts Receivable 2) Dry. Cash Cry. Accounts Receivable If the amount is immaterial, ML may also use the Direct Write – Off Method, where no allowance account is used. The journal entry would be as follows: or. Bad Debt Expense Due to the age of Accounts Receivable -? Super Shopper (90 days old) and the financial difficulties that Super Shopper is currently facing, it is unlikely that the account will be paid off and should there for be written off.ML should follow the Allowance Method of writing off journal entries stated above to record the write – off of the Accounts Receivable. This method would be preferred as it allows for the account to be restated should Super Shopper pay off their debt. The Direct Write -? Off Method would not suffice for this account as the amount of $200,000 is not considered immaterial. This Bad Debt Expense needs to be considered as it will impact Mil's assets, and an increase in bad debts is a decrease in the value of the firm (shareholders equity) of the firm for John. This might not be as substantial to consider should ML have already had a bad debt reserve, meaning that the net income would not have been so greatly affected.Issue: How to account for the Tech Outerwear Lawsuit Recognize lawsuit as a provision Recognize lawsuit as a contingent liability Under FIRS, ML should recognize the lawsuit as a provision if: 1) The company has a present legal obligation as a result of a past event 2) It is rabble – â€Å"more likely than not† – that an outflow of resources will be required to settle the obligation 3) A reliable estimate can be made of the amount of the obligation If the lawsuit meets these conditions, it should be recognized in the financial statements Under FIRS, ML should recognize the lawsuit as a contingent liability if either: 1) There is a possible legal obligation as a result of a past event, which will be confirmed on the occurrence of an uncertain future event, not within the reporting individual's control; or 2) There is a legal obligation from past events, which is not recognized as it is to probable that an outflow of resources will be required to settle the obligation or a reliable estimate cannot be made of the amount of the obligation If the lawsuit meets these conditions, it should be disclosed in the notes of the financial statements. The notes should include the following: 1) Estimate of its financial effect 2) Uncertainties related to the amount and timing of any out flow of resources 3) Possibility of any an outflow of resources The lawsuit by Tech Outerwear for patent infringement has not been properly assessed by Mil's lawyers yet, and therefore they have not determined the likelihood of losing the suit. This information allows us to determine that at this time the lawsuit should be recognized as a contingent liability in accordance with FIRS, as we are unable to meet the conditions to recognize it as a provision on the financial statements.This lawsuit meets the criteria that there is a possible legal obligation that cannot be confirmed until Mil's lawyers assess the lawsuit, and the probability of the outflow of resources and a reliable estimate of the obligation cannot be made. The numbers ($200,000 to $700,000) on past lawsuit settlements are not reliable information. The required disclosed notes stated above should be included in he financial statements. Determining the probability of the lawsuit and the estimated loss should be complete d as soon as possible, as a loss could result in a going concern policy. This information will be very important to John as the company has already experienced a loss of $500,000 during the year. This note has no effect on equity; only when the lawsuit is official will it have an effect on equity.Issue: Retractable Preferred Shares ML also has $50,000 of retractable preferred shares included in their capital stock. These shares a retractable if there is a change in the ownership of cuisines. This will be of concern to John, as the $500,000 loss incurred during the year does not leave the company with the funds available to pay the shareholders should they decide to sell their shares; John must consider day to – day cash requirements for the company's expenditures that are not included in current liabilities. While it was not stated, which might have been done on purpose by ML, it is unclear if dividends were declared during the year for the preferred shares, which may affect John's decision greatly.Cash dividends should not have been declared unless the current and future uncial position justify it; the current loss of $500,000 does not suggest that they should have declared any. Cash dividends would have reduced shareholder's equity. If stock dividends were distributed, then there would have been no effect on the balance of shareholder's equity. On the other hand, non -? payment of dividends can also affect the company as the preferred shareholders may choose to sell their shares if they stop receiving dividends; receiving dividends is usually what attracts investors to preferred stock. John should examine the debt/equity ratio to determine if these referred shares were issued because the ratio became too high and they wanted the company to look more desirable to investors and buyers.Issue: Accounting for Employee Stock Options Recognizing stock options While Compensatory Stock Option plans (COOP) do not involve a transfer of cash when first issued, th ey still must be recognizes in the financial statements and measured at fair value Coops are usually given instead of salary or a bonus, and the economic value lies in the prospective future gains when the options are exercised The Compensation Expense will be recognized as the services are being provided by the employees. Therefore, Total compensation expense is calculated on the day the options are granted and is equal to the fair value of the options. The first journal entry for Mil's stock options should look like the following: 1 2/31 /14: 1) Dry. Compensation Expense XX,XX Cry. Contributed Surplus – Stock Options XX,XX If/when the options are exercised, ML should record the entry as such: XX/XX/1 5: 2) or. Cash XX,XX Dry. Contributed Surplus – Stock Options CALYX Cry.Common Shares XX,XX If the options expire by the end of the three years, then the journal entries for the remaining balance should be the following: 3) Dry. Contributed Surplus – Stock Options Contributed Surplus – Expired Stock Options XX,XX cry. XX,XX Mil's disclosures on the stock options should include the following: 1) Accounting policy 2) Description of plan 3) Details on numbers and values Of options issued, exercised, and expired 4) Assumptions and methods used to determine fair values 5) Total Compensation Expense and Contributed Surplus The recognition of these stock options is required under both ASPS and FIRS, and ML has no option but to record them as such.The first journal entry that records the total Compensation Expense and Contributed Surplus must be made in order for ML to have accurate financial statements. The following journal entries are to be used in the future when options are exercised or expired. As no further information on dates and values were provided, the reporting individual is not able to provide completely finished journal entries. The Compensation Expense will lower the net income, which will subsequently lower shareholder's equi ty. As well, if there is a large amount of option redemption's, this will cause the share price to quickly drop. Investors who sell their shares during this time will incur capital losses, and these losses may be carried forward to reduce tax liabilities.

Legal and Ethical Considerations in Marketing, Product Safety, and Research Paper - 2

Legal and Ethical Considerations in Marketing, Product Safety, and Intellectual Property - Research Paper Example In fact, it is used as a reference point by both the proponents and opponents of ethical considerations in business. The case points out how intellectual property rights can be used both to the defense of the company as well as against it. However, the success of the company was crippled by the way PharmaCARE responded to ethical and legal issues that it was faced with. Being a medical giant, it thrived on research and made a breakthrough of a diabetes drug, AD23, which slowed down the terrible infringement of Alzheimer’s (Heinrich, 2003). In the face of high demand for the product, PharmaCARE set up a sister company called CompCARE and made it the compounding pharmacy to manufacture the drug (Heinrich, 2003). Soon, it became a mass hysteria to acquire this drug thus pushing CompCARE into methods outside the scope of what a compounding pharmacy is authorized to do. According to Halbert & Ingulli (2012) the end result was the death of over 200 people from cardiac arrests associated with the drug. The results were catastrophic to all the stakeholders of the company including the workers and patients. For instance, John who was a former researcher lost his wife because of using the drug. The downfall of PharmaCARE was brought about by the unethical business practices it engaged in. In the case of PharmaCARE, ethical considerations were evidently compromised by the firm and its management. The first ethical issue is when the company wrongfully capitalized on Colberians availability to be hired at the lowest wage rate thus exploiting their labor for a meager amount of compensation. Moreover the willingness of the locals to share vital information regarding indigenous cures was also exploited and the benefits did not trickle down to the indigenous people. In so doing, the firm violated legal and moral boundaries of a civilized and ethical society (Veatch & Haddad, 2008). The actions of the firm were also an evident

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 6

Assignment Example The measurement technique used was appropriate for the study, since the study took a sample of 204 students, which is a reasonable sample that is capable of giving valid results. The results of the reliability and/or validity measurements do not produce any caution in the possible replication of the study, but instead indicates a well undertaken study, where the results prove that the application of problem-based strategy is the most suitable for obtaining high learning achievements for primary school students. Case study 2 This case study applied quantitative measurement techniques, by sampling a total of 192 students from the sixth grade, to assess the effect of behavioral interactions and achievements of cooperative learning for group members who were trained to collaborate and facilitate each other's learning and those groups that were not trained, but merely instructed to help each other. The results of the study indicated that the members of the groups that were trained were co nsistently helpful to each other, compared to the groups that were not trained. ... The measurement technique applied was appropriate for the study, since random sampling was applied, which eliminated any chances of bias. Additionally, the samples picked were constituted of a suitable ratio of the high-ability, medium-ability and low-ability students. The results of the reliability and/or validity measurements do not produce any caution in the possible replication of the study. Case study 3 This case study applied quantitative measurement techniques, by sampling a total of 48 students to assess the influence of mastery and performance goals on the nature of children's collaborative participation while playing a problem-solving computer game with a peer. The results of the study indicated that those children who were assigned the mastery goals were involved in a very elaborate problem solving discussion, compared to the children who were assigned performance goals, who were observed to engage in a more help-seeking interaction, with a low level of meta-cognitive cont rol. The results further indicated that the instructions that were goal-focused are better placed to influence the nature and quality of children's paired interactions. Additionally, the study results showed that giving goal mastery instructions served to promote a highly collaborative interaction for the students. The measurement technique applied was appropriate for the study, since the sample of 48 students was further subdivided into two groups, comprising of the dispositional group, and the context-dependent group. Additionally, the children used as samples were organized based on the same gender, year group, and goal orientation, to ensure

Does Stendhal have anything important to tell us about love Essay

Does Stendhal have anything important to tell us about love - Essay Example In this paper, the contribution of Stendhal towards love as a topic and a writing theme will be analyzed, judging his writings from the eyes of analysts and critics. In his book on love, Stendhal attempted to make a rational analysis of human emotions, feelings and attitudes towards each other. To make a complete analysis of love and the way it impacts on different people and leaders, Stendhal analyzed four main types of love. According to Stendhal, love can be categorized based on the individual feeling, impact it has on the people and the input that sustains it. Passionate love was initially developed by the Portuguese nuns according to Stendhal and exists between individuals, families and even social groupings. The bond that brings together families and members of a given society, religious group or even political grouping is associated with the passionate attraction that they develop through constant interaction. Families, for example, are determined to protect and provide for their members as a way of showing that their existence goes beyond a social grouping, but a manifestation of passionate love shared (Toker, 2014, p.251). On the other hand, mannered love has its origin in Paris and has been captured in different French memoirs and stories including those involving chamfer and lauzun. Artists have attempted to illustrate the mannered love using different tools including the rosy hues that have no spot to show negativity and ill feelings. Whatsoever is unpleasant in mannered love will result into a breach of the better taste and etiquette that has been developed from this kind of love (Foster, 2014, p311). Any individual who attempts to nurture such kinds of love must first ensure that the rituals and stages involved are observed and followed. According to Stendhal, Mannered love results into more intense

Buddism and Christianity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Buddism and Christianity - Essay Example The paper compares and contrasts the vision of afterlife in Christianity and Buddhism and considers the morality in these two religions. Buddhism vs Christianity: general overview of the role of afterlife and morality The vision of the world in Buddhism is represented in the following way: the world and the actions of people are connected by causal actions. There are many different gods and their existence is not denied in Buddhism, but they are not the representatives of the basis for morality and they do not give much happiness (Buddhist Afterlife Beliefs, 2007). There is not an afterlife in its pure essence, but the Ultimate Reality, which is a transcendent truth governing the universe and human life. The main Hindu doctrines of reincarnation and karma were accepted by Buddhist practices. A human being should free himself from a desire, to escape the circle of life and death and exist in a kind of a philosophical emptiness. For this phenomenon Nirvana is positioned as a way of lib eration. Moreover, there is no role assigned to the eternal soul. It is more about the eternal and everlasting mind in Buddhism, than about soul. Therefore, death is not a final point for the followers of Buddhism. Therefore, it should be noted that death in Buddhism is an option of further reincarnation or rebirth. Buddha departed from Hinduism and claimed that there are no eternal souls of individuals (Yong, 2006). The main goal is to abandon the false senses and leave nothing to reincarnate and to experience no pain. The departed soul is departing during 49 days and there are three basic stages called â€Å"bardos†. Then a person reaches Nirvana or reaches the Earth for a rebirth (Buddhist Afterlife Beliefs, 2007). The conscious of a departed has a vision of "Clear White Light", when a person dies. Further apparitions occur and in order to achieve Nirvana the personification of human feelings can be seen. Unlike this religion, Christianity has another representation of an individual’s departure. An important role is assigned to God. God sends an individual either to Hell or to Heaven after the Last Judgment. There are different Christian views about afterlife. The concept of afterlife exists around the life of Christ. It concerns his resurrection, death and Resurrection. There is the following interpretation of afterlife: â€Å"At the end of the age, the bodies of the dead shall be raised. The righteous shall enter into full possession of eternal bliss in the presence of God, and the wicked shall be condemned to eternal death† (Christian Beliefs about the Afterlife, 2004). Concerning morality, it is evident that there is a different representation of morality in Christianity and Buddhism. In the former religion, there are evident basic moral pillars and absolutes, which are absent in Buddhism. The latter is more concerned about an individual’s motivation, intentionality of his actions etc. Moreover, Buddhists teachings are focuse d on the absence of necessity to trigger one’s self perfection from outside. It is on behalf of any follower to advance his decision making and the ability to have his own morals and norms of behavior. The different thing happens to Christian practices of morality: there is God, who is a center of morality perfection and the followers should comply with the God’s instructions in order to purify their souls. A centrality of moral concerns is relevant to Christianity, at the same time, while Buddhism

Fallacies and conspiracy theories, Roswell UFO incident Essay

Fallacies and conspiracy theories, Roswell UFO incident - Essay Example With this in mind, the fallacy goes on to state how scientists have taken years of hard work studying the equipment on-board the craft and have managed to gain some understanding, at least on a minimal level and not fully, which has brought about modern technologies. This has been done through reverse engineering of alien devices found onboard, which has seen â€Å"discoveries† made to the benefit of the military and the good of the people. A good example exists in the form of technological application in some unfathomable items such as night vision goggles and the Kevlar body armor. This is because the alien spacecraft did not have windows or any openings that could grant access, which means they were able to use accurate estimation instrument for navigation, and even got to the earth without being detect by the then defense mechanisms. The insinuation of this fallacy is that aliens gave birth to the technology that man holds dear in modern times as there is no other explanat ion to how it came into being, and that all pieces of the puzzle fit and point to Roswell. The technologies, besides the ones mentioned earlier include stealth technology, lasers and the integrated circuit chip, which have into existence recently after years of research and reverse engineering of alien technology (Speigel). Another fallacy is that the US military is in possession of highly effective weapons mounted on planes that could see to it that no enemy survives. This story is backed by the information given by a number of former military officials who put through their arguments for the existence of the conspiracy in that there were actually two alien spacecrafts and not one, as commonly believed by those that believe. This they back with tales of how the first craft came to crash, which is that there was a new test plane in the air force. The test plane is said to have fired its out of this world weapon, which is supposed to be some form of advanced pulse gun, which shot out electromagnetic pulses, which took out the electronics of the craft (Daily mail). With this idea, conspiracy theorists issue the concept of annihilative power of the US military in that as soon as the experimental plane took out the UFO, it came down crushing to see the developments that later followed after the craft was sa lvaged and towed to storage for exploration. This fallacy shows the alleged power of the US military and how much advanced it is in developing military applications for technologies that are discovered every now and then. As this pertains the main reason for the development of these theories or fallacies, one may view it starting from political to sensational conspiracies from several angles. In terms of political ambition, it is meant to discredit the government in that is not

An Analysis of the Benefits and Historical Development of Theatre in Essay

An Analysis of the Benefits and Historical Development of Theatre in Education - Essay Example The changes that have occurred within education and theatre are now able to benefit students in developing the craft of theatre more than past techniques, specifically because of the development into new and experimental approaches. The purpose of theatre in education from a historical context was to develop the craft of acting for students interested in performing literary works. However, newer models of theatre in education have created an alternative approach to understanding why theatre is used in schools. The curriculum and the main goals have changed the way that theatre is approached as well as what is used within the classroom for students. The concept of expression is now not only used for the study of acting and literature, but is also used for social and psychological development. When certain plays are interacted by students they have the ability to understand and interact with the information that is linked to this. The first objective that is achieved is instructional, which relates to the classroom teaching and the cognitive process used. The second objective is related to the expressions used. The educational level that is used within this is created specifically for an understanding of social a nd cultural issues that are prevalent in society and which need to be looked into (Jackson, 256). The development of theatre in education is not only important with the implementation and understanding of different cognitive processes. It is also essential because of the extra skills that it provides children with as they are moving through different development stages. Theatre for children that is developed in the correct manner can help with social skills and the ability to work within teams, specifically because of the way that different scripts are developed. More importantly, the use of different scripts can help with the development of communication and confidence. For all areas of academia as well as with

A discussion on Health Related Issues and Interventions for School Age Research Paper

A discussion on Health Related Issues and Interventions for School Age Children - Research Paper Example A number of health related issues arise at this age and their successful mitigation helps children develop normally into adolescent and adulthood. Without proper measure in place to address these health related issues, developmental problems may arise ranging from behavioural problems to physical and mental problems. This paper is going to look at a number of child health related problems such as childhood obesity and overweight issues, bullying, accidents and injuries, social network and the media, child abuse and neglect and the various interventions that could be employed to either prevent or lessen the impacts of these issues on school age children. Childhood obesity and overweight Last year, the Australia bureau of statistics reported the continued rise of childhood obesity over the last 40 years. The report indicated that the level of childhood obesity has increased substantially and is even projected to approach adult rates within 30 years. The report showed that 26.1% of chil dren between the ages of 5-15 were overweight or obese in 2007-08. In 2009 the same was 26.5% making a 0.4% increase in one year (ABS, 2011). The report attributed this rise to sedentary pursuits which include watching television and playing computer games. In 2005 the world health organization reported that 20 million children under 5 years were overweight. Latest statistics by the World health organization also indicate that 40 million children under the age of five years are overweight or suffer from obesity in 2010. These statistics are quite alarming making the issue a global concern (WHO, 2012). Scholars argue that overweight and obesity in childhood especially in older children can lead to serious and severe obesity and weight issues in adulthood. They also say that childhood and adolescent obesity poses a higher risk of premature death and disability later on in life (Kumanyika & Brownson, 2007, p. 51). Literature also suggests children who are obese or overweight normally e ncounter several physical risks and are at a greater risk of social isolation. Such children also are at the risk of developing psychological disorders than those who are in a healthy weight range (Vichuda L Mathews, 2011, pp. 4-6: Justin, 2005, p.84). Research also indicates other consequences of overweight and obesity and these include the development of chronic conditions such as chronic respiratory problems such as sleep apnoea and breathlessness; chronic musculoskeletal problems such as lower back pains and osteoarthritis; gall bladder disease and impaired fertility and well as chronic cardiovascular problems (Dehghan, Akhtar-Danesh, & Merchant, 2005, p. 24). Scholars have proposed a number of strategies in which childhood obesity could be reduced. Such intervention measures have been in existence for quite some time now. Their application is case specific and some could still be applied to solve the problem generally. Telford et al. (2012, 371 )in their study found out that an appropriately designed and administered physical education program (PE) is capable of producing benefits for elementary school children by reducing the percentage increase of body fat but also led to significant enhancement of numeracy development. Other studies have also supported the idea of physical education in helping in the primary prevention of overweight and obesity. Davis et al. (2012, p. 243) in their study propose school based initiatives that include physical activity and also provide opportunities for physical education and recess programs as very important in the prevention of obesity. It is argued that physical activity helps reduce adiposity in

Are rich nations violating the human rights of the world's poor If so, Essay

Are rich nations violating the human rights of the world's poor If so, how - Essay Example Affluent countries are constantly violating human rights of the world’s poor. Freeman (2006) states that although much effort has been put into place to ensure that violation of such rights is eradicated, several factors impede the implementation of measure against rights violations. Through such observations scholars have tried to deduce the link between the affluent and poor countries, as well as, the effects on human rights. Pogge (2000) contends that rich nations have been in the focal position in the violation of human rights and through actions carried out by these rich governments poor nations end up being subjected to abject poverty. Rich nations being part of the society at large have an obligation to assist poor countries in ensuring that all essential basic necessities are available to foster developed. Pogge (2002) argues that rich countries have immensely contributed to violation of human rights through implementation of coercive institutional orders. For instance, international trade agreements that enable their companies benefit through tariffs, quotas, anti-dumping duties, export credits and huge subsidies levied on poor nations. These nations in the pretext of offering support through donations and charity programs end up soliciting favors from poor governments leaders in government projects and such ingenuity thereafter leads to underprivileged and desperate, stunted, uneducated citizenry. The adverse effect of such actions is always felt through poverty and environmental degradation. This is usually as a result of over-consumption that impoverishes poor nations through the monopolization resources by rich countries. Additionally, rich couturiers enter into collaborative alliances with leaders from poor governments with the intent to gain access to their resources while pleasing and aiding the leadership stay of the native leader (Nagel, 2005). Corrupt and oppressive governments in

Soft Drink Industry Essay Example for Free

Soft Drink Industry Essay The global soft drink industry is currently expanding quite rapidly. This is due to two major factors. First, markets are expanding rapidly in developing countries and second people are turning toward natural, healthy, and low-calorie drinks. This so called â€Å"new-age† beverages, such as tea-based beverages, is considerably stimulating the development of the soft drink industry and also creating a major challenge to the carbonated beverage market. In part to address this trend, big soft drink companies, like Pepsi and Coke, are striving to become a â€Å"total beverage company† (Seet and Yoffie 95), in which they will serve the comprehensive soft drink market. Generally speaking, the soft drink off-trade value worldwide is gradually rising ever year, from $231,401 in 2001 to $323,031 in 2006 (Global Market Information Database 2007). The biggest market for soft drinks is still North America and Western Europe, which together consumed 43% of gross soft drink volume worldwide in 2006 (Global Market Information Database ‘07). However, the general developing trend for the North America and Western European market is now shrinking in terms of the global market while the Asian market is expanding very rapidly in recent years to now account for 22% of the global market (Global Market Information Database ‘07). The market volumes of Africa, the Middle East, and Australia are comparatively smaller. However, the Middle East, Africa, Eastern Europe, and Asia-pacific markets are â€Å"emerging markets† and attract many companies, ranging from multinationals to niche specialists, who continue to see volume growth well in excess of the market average (Robinson ‘04). With the growth in volume, the average level of profitability of the soft drink industry remains quite high. First, the concentrate producers (CP’s) have become integrated with bottling companies, thereby reducing production costs. The CP’s and bottlers remain profitable through interdependence, sharing promotional and advertising and marketing costs (Seet and Yoffie 95). For example, Coca-Cola has many bottlers in different regions; therefore, their distribution cost is not as high. Furthermore, the CP’s directly negotiate with the suppliers to efficiently manage qualities for their products. In addition, their product line and distribution chain is now more systemic and integrated. Big soft drink producers increasingly franchise bottlers or buy a share from them rather than controlling bottling totally by themselves. This has activated and developed the capital-intensive bottling business. In spite of these trends competition remains intense, such as between distributors and also between new local labels and international drink corporations. Thirdly, the soft drink industry has several channels to sell to consumers such as vending machines, convenience stores, food stores (supermarkets), and national warehouses. For example after a long work-out, one quenches one’s thirst by going to a soft drink vending machine for a Cola. With this distribution channel, soft drinks are sold directly to consumers without bargaining. In 1993, Coca-Cola sold approximately 45% of their soft drinks through vending machine in the Japanese market (Seet and Yoffie 95). Another reason for the level of profitability of the soft drink industry remaining quite high is because this industry has a nearly 47% market share of the non-alcoholic beverages industry (Deichert ‘06). It is also to be noted that some of the soft drink vendors like Coca-Cola and Pepsi have gotten their logos printed on cups at fast food restaurants so that customers are readily reminded of their brands. Big name soft drinks also promote their brands by getting them placed in the middle shelves of stores to attract customers. With the constant expansion of Pepsi products into foreign countries, it may seem challenging for Coca-Cola Enterprises (CCE) to sustain their status in the soft drink industry. The soft drink industry is one of the industries that we consider mild on the degree spectrum of Michael Porter’s five competitive forces. As we look at the first competitive force, the threats of new entrants, we cannot help but consider the high capital investment in building simply a minimum bottling plant – a good amount of $20 million to $30 million is needed (Seet and Yoffie 95). This means that in the category of the threats of new entrants, bottling plant yields a low to medium degree of intensiveness. Also, a Seet and Yoffie states that in 1980, government policy intervened and established the Soft Drink Inter-brand Competition Act to help preserve the right of CP’s to include certain geographical territories (95). Meanwhile, concentrate businesses, a medium to high intensive business, involve very little capital of machinery, overhead and labor (Seet and Yoffie 95). However, it does required some advertising, promotion, market research and advertising (Seet and Yoffie 95) Another factor is that the bargaining power of suppliers of concentrate business is low. When asked, â€Å"Are they easy to be replaced? † The answer is, â€Å"Yes. † The bottling business, on the other hand, has a high bargaining power of suppliers because it is difficult to replace these businesses since they are one of a kind. There is only one Coca-Cola brand, or one Pepsi or one Seven-Up in this world. It would take years to replace these well known and well established products. On the contrary, the bargaining power of buyers of concentrate business is high while for bottling business is medium. For instance, when a concentrate company bargains with a Seven-Up company regarding their supply of recipe, Seven-Up can decide who they choose to supply their recipe to since currently there is only one Seven-Up recipe in the soft drink market. Therefore, the concentrate business has a low bargaining power of buyers. In terms of fear of threat of substitute products, the bottling business is medium. Coke and Pepsi’s franchise agreement â€Å"allowed bottlers to handle the non-cola brands of other concentrate producers (CP’s)† (Seet and Yoffie 95). The bottling companies seem to be submissive to Coke and Pepsi. Lastly, rivalry among competing firms for concentrate business seems to be quite high. There seems to exist quite a few international brands such as RC Cola, Dr. Pepper/Seven-Up, and Cadburry Schweppes, who produce only concentrate. As for the bottling business, the rivalry among competing firms is low because of certain franchise agreement such as one Coca-Cola and Pepsi presented. Seet and Yoffie reports that with the agreement a coke bottler cannot sell RC Cola, but they can distribute Seven-Up as long as they do not carry Sprite (95) Nevertheless the concentrate producers (CP’s) want to vertically integrate into bottling for two main reasons: to make their operation system more efficiency and to cut costs. These factors are interrelated. First, CP’s can make their operating system more efficient through vertical integration. For instance, if two different sectors, such as bottling business or concentration business, are following the same rules, having the same operating system then it is easier for them to work together. Second, CP’s can reduce some costs by vertically integrating. One example is transaction costs. According to Seet and Yoffie, concentrate producers’ most significant costs include advertising, promotion, market research, and bottler relations (95). For example, if CP’s were to cut down their costs from one of these significant costs, they would earn more profits. Moreover, CP’s are usually in charge of market research, product planning and advertising while bottlers play an important role in developing trade and consumer promotions. In order to have a reliable supply, CP’s have to be in direct contact with the bottlers and monitor them, therefore, CP’s need to employ more staff to work on this part. If CP’s can vertically integrate into bottling, they could save more money and in the same time provide quality with quantity. In recent years, the CCE’s sales volume in China has been growing with rates of averaging at 16 to 17 percent annually. At the same time, China’s retail environment has been changing rapidly. According to president of CCE China division, Paul Etchells, although small retail outlets are still prevalent in China, the number of hyper-marts (larger retail outlets) and supermarkets is rocketing. In China, CCE has to keep up with the rising demand for their brands. They have to continuously increase their production plants, employees, and distribution channels. CCE’s market in the US, however, has been slowing down because US consumers are becoming more health-conscious (Stanford ‘07). They are now consuming less carbonated beverages preferring diet sodas (but these are carbonated), coffee, teas, bottled water, and energy drinks. This is a problem for CCE because the majority of CCE’s products are carbonated drinks (Stanford ‘07). Another factor that slows CCE is the rising commodity cost in the US. This cost then will be passed to US consumers. Historically, the Chinese government wanted to protect the domestic soft drink industry by setting up strict regulations on foreign soft drinks companies (Seet and Yoffie 95). Today, the government is more lenient to foreign businesses (Stanford ‘07). Building new manufacturing plants and selling CCE’s products to Chinese consumers is not as hard as it was in the past. However, doing business in China requires CCE to build a relationship with the government. The concept of Guanxi is an important factor that determines the success of a company (Seet and Yoffie 95). CCE’s managers in China spent a lot of time building relationships with the Chinese officials. Since corruption is common in China and CCE is a US based company, the CCE has a disadvantage doing business in China. In the US, on the other hand, business is done more formally. There is not an urgent need to build a relationship with the government. However, an increasing number of consumers in US is concerned with issues relating to sustainability. Therefore, CCE needs to address issues such as water scarcity and pollution. In other words, China’s growing demand and US’ decreasing demand for Coca-Cola products accounted for CCE’s heavy investment in the Chinese market. Coca-cola was introduced to China in the early 1920s and came back after the declaration of the People Republic of China in 1949 through stiff negotiation with the Chinese officials (Seet and Yoffie 95). Since the 1940s, Coca-Cola dominated the U. S. market, which provided the company with financial leverage to expand into internationally and set the tone and the pricing strategy for Pepsi. At that time Pepsi did not have the matching financial power and resources to face any challenges Coca-Cola could introduce in the beverage market (Seet and Yoffie 95). Therefore, Coca-Cola and Pepsi have been fierce rivals in both domestic and international markets. Each company is using a different strategy to remain in control while increasing their net revenue. Coca-Cola entered China before Pepsi did. However, the soft drink market in China can absorb both products due to the fact that China has one fourth of the world’s population, which provides a great deal of demand for both companies to generate profit. Looking at both company’s strategies, one can see that both companies are aiming to become established in the beverage market in China. Moreover, Pepsi seems to be making better acquisition decisions than Coca-Cola; however, the financial figures reveal the victor. The purchases that Pepsi has recently made will take their toll in the form of long term debt, while Coke can concentrate more on increasing market share, as they are much less leveraged than their largest competitor. Coca-cola and Pepsi control 19% and 9% of the Chinese soft-drink market respectively. Coca-Cola operates in 23 bottling plants with total investment of $500 million, while Pepsi operates on 18 plants with total investment of $ 600 million (Seet and Yoffie 95). Coca-Cola is buying their own assets or entering in a joint venture with the Chinese government. For example in China the government owns plants and distribution centers, while Pepsi is pursuing joint ventures and mergers with local companies. The battle for the soft drink industry in China will require a great deal of financial and marketing resources to cover all aspects of competition in local industry. For example, Coca-cola officials are heavily involved with the government, where they spend almost 50% of their time catering and entertaining the government officials to gain more influence in their operation (since the corruption rate in China is high) (Seet and Yoffie 95). Doing so will provide an advantage over Pepsi because the distribution plants need to be close to the local market to be able to provide the market with competitive products that are cheap and of high quality. In comparison with Coke, Pepsi’s strategy of joint ventures with local industry helps them cut costs and pass the savings to the Chinese consumers (Seet and Yoffie 95). Finally, both companies are investing heavily and using their equity to expand and generate revenue in China, which financial figures show that they will not have any financial liquidity in the near future if they continue at the same rate of investment.

Synthesis and Characterization of Nylon-6,6 Polymer

Synthesis and Characterization of Nylon-6,6 Polymer Abstract Synthesis and characterization of nylon-6,6 polymer was performed in this experiment. Nylon-6,6, was obtained from adipoyl chloride and 1,6-hexanediamine monomers, dissolved in cyclohexane and water. Employing interfacial polymerization technique, thin film of nylon product was formed and collected. The final product were white peaces of small fragile strings with a total mass of 0.0694 g and 4 cm in length. Infrared spectroscopy then characterized the final product and confirmed successeful synthesis of nylon-6,6 polymer due to the appearance of N-H stretching, C=O stretching, and N-H bending from the secondary amide group and from the nylon polymer. Introduction Polymers are macromolecules consisting of smaller subunits, called monomers.4 There are two main types of synthetic polymers, according to the mechanism by which they are synthetically made: step- growth and chain-growth polymers.4 One of the most popular synthetic polymers is nylon-6,6 due to low cost and ease of synthesis. There is no human activity where plastics are not used on a daily basis. Nylon in particular is widely used, due to variety of properties such as: elasticity, flexibility, lightweight and strength.5 Clothing, electronics, packaging, cars, airplanes, medical supplies, cookware, ropes all examples of nylon fabrics.5 In this experiment nylon is made by step- growth polymerization and condensation reaction. The monomers involved in this polymerization reaction are adipoyl chloride and 1,6-hexanediamine dissolved in cyclohexane, respectively. The chloride from the acid and the hydrogen proton from the amine group form a hydrochloric acid.4 The rest of the adipoyl chloride and hexanediamine will link together to form a larger polymer molecule. In each end of this polymer is a primary amine group in one end or an acid chloride group in the other end.4 These groups can act in a similar way with other acid/amine groups from the adipoyl chloride and hexanediamine. If many steps of this process are repeated, nylon-6,6 polymer will be formed.4 Hydrochloric acid is generated as a byproduct upon nylon formation, therefore a strong base must be added to neutralize the acidity of HCl, and maintain the pH of the solution. In this experiment sodium hydroxide was used as base. Infrared (IR) spectroscopy will be applied as method of characterization. It will provide information regarding   functional groups present in a molecule because the location of the absorption peaks observed have been associated with specific types of chemical bonds.6 It could be determine which functional groups from the starting monomers, are present in the nylon spectrum. Results Table 1: Nylon-6,6 Polymer Mass of nylon-6,6 0.0694 g Length 4 cm Appearance White fragile strings Table 2: IR spectrum of adipoyl chloride Functional Group Molecular Motion Observed Wavenumber (cm-1) Literature Value Range(cm-1) Peak Intensity Peak Shape   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Alkane C-H Stretch 2952.44 3000-2850 Weak Broad Acyl chloride C=O Stretch 1779.80 1820-1780 Weak Sharp Alkane C-H in plane bend 1404.56 1480-1350 Medium Sharp Acyl chloride C-Cl Stretch 681.43 800-600 Strong Sharp Table 3: IR spectrum of 1,6- hexanediamine Functional Group Molecular Motion Observed Wavenumber (cm-1) Literature Value Range(cm-1) Peak Intensity Peak Shape 1 ° amine N-H Stretch 3323.78 3300-3250 Medium Sharp Alkane C-H Assym. Stretch 2921.17 3000-2850 Strong Sharp Alkane C-H Sym. Stretch 2846.91 3000-2850 Strong Sharp 1 ° amine N-H Bend 1603.91 1640-1530 Medium Sharp Table 4: IR spectrum of nylon-6,6 polymer Functional Group Molecular Motion Observed Wavenumber (cm-1) Literature Value Range(cm-1) Peak Intensity Peak Shape 2 ° amide N-H Stretch 3299.0 3300-3250 Strong Sharp Alkane C-H Assym. Stretch 2932.0 3000-2850 Medium Sharp Alkane C-H Sym. Stretch 2859.0 3000-2850 Medium Sharp 2 ° amide C=O Stretch 1636.0 1680-1640   Ã‚   Strong Sharp 2 ° amide N-H   Bend 1538.0 1560-1530 Medium Sharp Discussion In this experiment, sythesis of nylon-6,6 was carried out. The final product had an appearance of white pieces of small fragile strings with a total mass of 0.0694 g and 4 cm in length. A way of improving the yield could be: different molar ratios of water to solvent; changing the solvent. No theorytical yield could be calculated for this reaction because all the polymer chains will have   variety of different lengths.1 The ability of nylon-6,6 to undergo hydrogen bonding results in high molecular order and high degree of interchain interaction as shown below2 (Figure 1). Each single chain of nylon fiber will interact with the adjacent one, forming a hydrogen bond between the nitrogen proton of the secondary amide and the lone pairs of the oxygen on the carbonyl, thus making the nylon polymers strong, difficult to separate and resistant to outside reaction.2 The signals for the IR spectrum of adipoyl chloride, are presented in Table 2. The spectrum shows the characteristic weak and narrow alkane peak, C-H stretch at 2952.44 cm-1. This value was within the range 3000-2850 cm-1 for the secondary alkane functional groups.   The weak and sharp C=O stretch appeared at 1779.80 cm-1 thus correlating with the literature value 1820-1780 cm-1. A C-H bend for alkanes should appear at 1480-1350 cm-1, which did appear at 1404.56 cm-1 as a medium and sharp peak. A C-Cl stretch was observed at 681.43 cm-1, within the expected range of 800-600 cm-1. This peak appeared weak to strong and sharp. The IR spectrum for 1,6-hexanediamine exhibits the following stretches: N-H stretch; N-H bend; alkane C-H asymmetric stretch; and an alkane C-H symmetric stretch. The primary amine is causing the N-H stretch. The literature value for this stretch is from 3300 to 3250 cm-1, which corresponds to the experimental value of 3323.78 cm-1. The peak intensity is medium and the shape is sharp. There is another sharp peak with medium intensity caused by the primary amine as well, which appear to be a N-H bend. The experimental value of 1603.91 cm-1 correlates well with the literature value range of 1640-1530 cm-1. There is C-H asymmetric stretch observed at 2921.17 cm-1 and it corresponds to the literature value range of 3000-2850 cm-1, caused by the alkane. It exhibited strong intensity. The C-H symmetric stretch falls in the appropriate range of literature values 3000-2850 cm-1 and it is caused by the alkane as well (See table 3). Analysis of IR spectrum of nylon-6,6 polymer showed successful synthesis. There were five distinct peaks associated with this compound include the following: N-H stretch; C=O stretch; C-H symmetric stretch; C-H antisymmetric stretch; and N-H bend. The N-H stretch had an observed peak value of 3300.81 cm-1 and its caused by the secondary amine. It correlates well with the literature values of 3300-3250 cm-1 and with the N-H stretch of 1,6-hexadiamine at 3323.78 cm-1. The two peaks have the same shapes, just slightly different intensities. Nylon-6,6 has strong intensity whereas the 1,6- hexanediamine, medium one. The C=O stretch had an observed peak value of 1634.04 cm-1. It falls within the expected literature values for this peak 1300-1100 cm-1. It appears at lower wavelength, compared to the adipoyl chloride. The proximity of the carbonyl to the nitrogen, lowers the energy of that stretch, due to interchain molecular interactions3. The alkane C-H assymetric and symmetric stretches e vident at 2932 cm-1 and 2832 cm-1 are nearly identical with the C-H stretches of 1,6- hexanediamine (See Tables 2 and 3). Differing only in their intensities- medium for the nylon and strong for the 1,6- hexanediamine.   All of the observed values fall within their literature range. The N-H bend at 1538 cm-1 with medium intensity and sharp peak, is caused by the secondary amide. It is in the accepted literature data of 1560-1530 cm-1. The major peak not present in the nylon-6,6 spectrum and evident in the starting material spectra for adipoyl chloride is the C-Cl stretch. The acyl chloride stretch is missing because there is no chlorine in the nylon composition, thus explaining why there are no observed stretches below 1000 cm-1. The other major difference is the N-H stretch observed at 3323.78 cm-1 in the hexanediamine spectrum, which appears at lower wavelength and becoming one peak for a secondary amide in the nylon spectrum. Conclusion This experiment demonstrated successful synthesis of nylon-6,6 polymer. It was accomplished using infrared spectroscopy technique. The IR analysis revealed the appearance of N-H stretching, C=O stretching and N-H bending from a secondary amide group and from the nylon polymer. It showed that there is no C-Cl stretch explaining the absence of chlorine in the nylon polymer as well as the N-H observed on the hexanediamine spectrum, appears on a lower wavelength as a secondary amide in the nylon spectrum. The final product had an appearance of white pieces of small fragile strings with a total mass of 0.0694 g and 4 cm. However, this experiments allows for multiple errors; such as improper pipetting technique; improper washing technique; incorrect rate of taking out the nylon product from the reaction beaker.   A chemical error could be not adding enough sodium hydroxide to neutralize the acidity of HCl, not allowing the reaction to be pushed towards the product.

Celebrity Endorsements in Advertising

Celebrity Endorsements in Advertising Celebrity endorsements Abstract The use of celebrity endorsements is becoming increasing popular amongst organisations to aid in advertising their brand in order to gain a competitive advantage. The use of celebrity endorsements are a means of creating awareness of the brand advertised. This investigations main purpose is to explore the influences that celebrity endorsements have on the consumers motivation to purchase, in particular focusing on sports celebrities. Celebrity endorsement have become a widely recognised form of advertising, however there is still some doubt as to whether celebrity endorsements are an effective technique in influencing consumers to purchase. This investigation will conduct essential research by critically analysing the academic literature, whilst undertaking further primary research to establish a broader insight into celebrity endorsement. Findings from the primary research will be analysed and discussed, finally a conclusion will evaluate primary research against the literature review. Introduction The author will present a general understanding of the topic, in the first chapter. Furthermore, the author will also present the problem area, which this study will be based on, followed by the purpose and outline of the study. Nature of the Topic This report will illustrate relevant research and theories on celebrity endorsement and how they are becoming an attractive tool within advertising. The central point of this investigation will focus on whether celebrity endorsement has an impact on consumers motivation to purchase, and will be primarily looking at sports celebrities. This investigation will emphasis on the use of sporting celebrities in advertisements as they have achieved their celebrity status through sporting success as opposed to it being either ascribed or attributed Achieved celebrity derives from the perceived accomplishments of the individual in open competition In the public realm they are recognised as individuals who possess rare talents or skills. (Rojek, 2001) According to industry sources, approximately 20% of all television commercials feature a famous person, and approximately 10% of the dollars spent on television advertising are used in celebrity endorsement advertisements (Sherman, 1985 cited in Agrawal and Kamakura, 1995). Premeaux (2005 cited in Bailey, 2007) suggests the reason why this figure is so high is the ability of the celebrity endorser to get and hold attention with evidence of the positive impact of celebrity endorsers on brand recall. Freiden (1984) concluded that celebrities are particularly effective endorsers because they are viewed as highly trustworthy, believable, persuasive, and likeable. Although celebrities are an increasingly popular tool in advertising, what impact do they have on consumers attitudes? It is the aim of this study to outline whether celebrities have an effect on consumer purchasing behaviour. To investigate this issue, many key areas of celebrity endorsement need to be researched, including consumer buyer behaviour, the effects celebrity endorsements have had on organisations and consumer attitudes in the past, whilst also assessing possible advantages and disadvantages of using celebrity endorsements in promotion techniques. Rationale for Selecting Topic The initial reason this topic was chosen to research was that the author has a particular interest in this aspect of marketing, and how celebrities are becoming an increasingly attractive tool for organisation to promote their brand and how this technique motivates consumers to purchase. Therefore the rationale as to why I chose this topic area is that it is a current and contemporary issue of marketers. It is a marketing communication tool that is used widely across western culture thus being relevant and significant in todays market. Objectives For this investigation, the author has specific aims that include: To reveal whether celebrity endorsements effect consumers purchasing decisions and to what extent. To examine within the literature review the influence of celebrity endorsers compared with normal people. To carry out appropriate research methodology based on the review of literature that will establish whether celebrity endorsements are successful in motivating consumer purchasing behaviour. To analyse findings and conclude whether celebrities do influence consumers motivation to purchase. Structure Chapter Two Literature Review The review of literature will examine past theories and research on celebrity endorsements, outlining relevant areas involving; consumer buyer behaviour, celebrity versus non-celebrity advertising, key attributes organisation require in an endorser and benefits and limitations of using this communication technique. Chapter Three Methodology This chapter will examine both primary and secondary research methods that have been utilised in this study to enable the author to meet the specified aims and objectives. Additionally advantages and disadvantages of each method will be justified Chapter Four Findings, Analysis and Discussion This section will show the results obtained from primary data, which will be analysed and evaluated against theoretical research presented within the literature review. Chapter Five Conclusion This chapter will interpret and evaluate the findings from primary research conducted in conjunction with academic literature. The conclusion will draw deductions on whether celebrity endorsements do influence consumers motivation to purchase. Literature Review This chapter seeks to explore the most crucial attributes that is mostly associated with celebrity endorsement strategy. This in turn, to apply the following attributes in the methodology part of the study. Introduction The aim of this literature review is to give a comprehensive discussion of the range of theories which offer frameworks to aid in answering the research questions in relation to the effects sports celebrity endorsements have on consumer buyer behaviour. Theories are chosen within this chapter as those which form the core of consumer behaviour theory relating to the marketing principles. In particular literature is explored which examines the influence of sports celebrities in advertising products/brands. One way of perceiving marketing is the achievement of business goals through anticipating, meeting and satisfying consumer needs (Blackwell, Miniard and Engel, 2001). Unsurprisingly markets must conduct consumer behaviour research in order to understand their target customer better than other competition and as a result of this it will allow strategic marketing mixes to work more effectively for organisations (Jobber, 2001). Recent studies maintain that attracting new customers has a much higher cost than the retention of existing ones for an organisation thus companies must build up efficient and effective communications with both existing and potential consumers through its marketing mix strategy. As a result below-the-line promotions have established themselves as a major element of the marketing mix, with advertising traditionally being the dominant communication tool for organisations (Lanman, 2003). In terms of using sports celebrity endorsements in advertising, it is often used in advertising that strongly depends on a strong brand image from a social perception. Celebrities can be seen as a useful force in expressing the brand characteristics to consumers in a direct way. However Solomon, Bamossy, Askegaard and Hogg (2010) state that consumer behaviour is dynamic, meaning the entire purchasing decision process is complex. Customers will be influenced by various factors such as reference groups, social effects as well as local cultural factors, these aspects impact on the way in which a consumer will make decisions. Therefore it is important that marketers carry out consumer research and analysis to be aware of important trends and evaluate these aspects. Due to the characteristics related to the purchasing process, this literature review will focus on individual buying behaviour in relation to sports celebrity endorsement. Defining Celebrity Endorsement Marketers usually use individuals who have achieved some form of celebrity status to serve as a spokesperson for their brand. Most celebrities that are hired by an organisation to endorse their product or brand are popular people, television stars, movie actors or famous athletes (Shimp, 2007). Furthermore, when an organisation decides to use an endorsement strategy as their marketing communication method, one of the main focuses lies within exposing the brand (Kotler, Armstrong, Wong and Saunders, 2008). The use of a celebrity endorser can be seen as the source of a message the company wishes to expose to their target audience. According to Belch and Belch (2009), the term source, when talking about the involvement in communicating a marketing message, can occur either be directly or indirectly. Directly can be the celebrity who functions as a spokesperson for the brand and sends out information that the company desires to deliver to their target audience. Alternatively indirectly is when a celebrity does not send the message but draws attention to and/or enhance the appearance of the advertisement. The marketer must select a celebrity that has a good fit with the brand, that is intended to be exposed (Pringle, 2004). Using sports figures as product endorsers has also been shown to be an effective marketing strategy. Endorsement is the use of a sport celebrity by a company to sell or enhance the image of the company, product, or brand. Product endorsement using sport celebrities has been found to impact attitude toward an advertisement (Tripp, Jensen and Carlson, 1994), increase the likelihood of consumers choosing a product or brand (Kahle and Homer, 1985; Kamins, Brand, Hoeke and Moe, 1989), and increase the profitability of a firm (Agrawal and Kamakura, 1995). Product endorsements may be explicit (I endorse this product) or implicit (I use this product) (Seno and Lukas, 2005). The use of athlete endorsements provides an opportunity for companies to associate with attributes not found in other types of celebrities. More specifically, winning, success, teamwork, and community are associations an athlete may offer that other forms of celebrity may not (Jones, Bee, Burton and Kahle, 2004). When an organisation decides to use a celebrity in their endorsement strategy, there are three important source factors that need to be considered, these include; source-credibility, source-attractiveness and source-power (Belch and Belch, 2009). These attributes will be discussed in section 1.8. Consumer Purchasing Process and Motivation As Individuals consumers usually purchase products or services for personal consumption either for private purposes, domestic or a gift means, these can be defined as end users. Blackwell et al (2001) defines the initial step in the consumer decision process as need arousal in relation to the emotional and psychological needs relevant to the individual consumer, this occurs when an individual senses a difference between what they perceive to be the ideal versus the actual state of affairs. However the degree in which a consumer will actively search to resolve need deficiency relies on the perceived importance of the problem and the distinction between desired and current state. If problem recognition is high then information search and evaluation of alternative options are two potential further stages in the process. Motivation occurs when there is a strong desire or need for a particular product or brand that the consumer wishes to satisfy (Foxall, Goldsmith and Brown, 1998). A seri es of stages must be passed through before an ultimate decision is made whether to purchase or not, during this process a brand choice will be made. Branding strategies used by organisations should be aware of factors that may effect an individuals motivation with regards to needs satisfaction when obtaining products/brands through the initial stages of the consumer decision making process. One determinant of the extent a consumer will evaluate a brand is the involvement the product entails; high involvement decisions means there is a need for extensive evaluation and information search (Hawkins et al, 1992). Price is frequently seen as a main indicator of involvement level as individuals spend increasingly more time searching and comparing information and prices. Whereas Schiffman and Kanuk (2009) claim that customer satisfaction depends on the product or service matching consumer expectations. It has been suggested that each member of the household has definable roles within the decision making process which includes: initiator or gatekeeper, influencer, decider, buyer and user (Blackwell et al, 2006 pp. 486). It is unsurprisin g that organisations pursue branding strategies that incorporate reference group influences such as celebrities to create a specific brand image for the consumer. Popularity of Celebrity Endorsement 235 Celebrity advertising has become increasingly popular amongst organisations with the attempt to get consumers to spend. McCracken (1989) recognised that celebrity endorsement is a ubiquitous feature of modern marketing. The number of organisations now using celebrities in their advertising has increased, as according to Stephens and Rice (1998) In the USA, the use of celebrity endorsers have increased from a little over 15 percent to approximately 25 percent of all adverts between 1979 and 1997. However the celebrity heat is even more evident in Japan with around 70 percent of Japanese commercials featuring a celebrity (Kilburn, 1998). Erdogan et al (2001) highlights the rise of celebrity endorsement in the United Kingdom with approximately one in five marketing programs featuring some type of celebrity endorsement. These figures demonstrate the prevalence of the celebrity appeal as a method of persuasive communication (Hsu and McDonald, 2002). Atkin and Block (1983) claim two fundamental reasons why celebrities are increasingly utilised within advertising. Firstly, celebrities are more efficient at attracting attention to an advertisement in the cluttered stream of messages in which consumers are inundated with advertising messages and secondly, celebrities are perceived as more entertaining and seen as trustworthy because of apparent lack of self-interest. Although the number of advertising featuring celebrities has increased and it seems inevitable that it will in the future, there is still a question of whether celebrity endorsement has an impact on consumers behaviour. This topic will be examined further during the next section. Celebrity Adverts Effectiveness in Relation to Consumer Behaviour 430 OGuinn et al (2008 pp 9) states that advertising plays a pivotal role in world commerce and in the way consumers experience and live their lives as it is part of our language and our culture. Advertising is important part of the decision making process as it enables the consumer to learn about products and the availability of that product, if advertising did not exist, consumers would not be aware of any new products on the market. According to McCracken (1989) a consumers are constantly moving symbolic properties out of consumer goods into their lives to construct aspects of self and world. Consumers face various adverts that try to impact the way in which we behave as a consumer. It is imperative that marketers have advertising campaigns that capture the attention of their target market in order to impact on behaviour. This provides an important incentive to use sports celebrities as part of their advertising promotion as celebrities attract consumers attention with their appealing status which organisation feel will benefit the products awareness (Erdogan, 1999). OGuinn et al (2008 pp 349) describes that a celebrity testimonial will increase the adverts ability to attract attention and produce a desire in receivers attempting to emulate or imitate the celebrities in which they admire. Additionally Atkin and Black (1983) emphasize that celebrity endorsers may be influential as celebrity endorsers are considered to be highly dynamic, with attractive and engaging personal qualities. Audiences may also trust the advice provided by some famous persons, and in certain cases celebrities may even be perceived as competent to discuss the product. It is essential that marketers select an appropriate spokesperson to communicate the message of the brand to consumers effectively, as if a celebrity is chosen that is not admired or relatable to the target market this will hinder the advertisements effectiveness. However Assael (1984 cited in Kamins, 1990) suggests that celebrities are effective endorsers because of their symbolic aspirational reference group association. In addition, Kamins (1990) argues that reference groups provide points of comparison through which the consumer may evaluate attitudes and behaviour. Reference groups vary in how consumers perceive their own characteristics and lifestyles, and whether such celebrity advertising may generate these attitudes and behaviour. Schiffman and Kanuk (2004) believes that sports celebrities can be a powerful force in creating interest or actions with regard to purchasing or using selected goods or services. However Foxall and Goldsmith (1998) believe that a celebrity endorsement does not create a strong pre-purchase attitude but can impact and cause change in the consumers perception process. The complexity of consumer buying behaviour is coordinated with a complexity in assessing the effect of sports celebrity advertising on such behaviour Celebrity Vs Non-Celebrity Endorsement 232 Few studies have compared the impact of celebrity advertising with non-celebrity advertising in determining their effectiveness on consumer behaviour. An investigation conducted by Friedman et al (1977) that used advertisements with celebrities and non-celebrities for a fictitious brand of sangria. They found that the celebrity version of the advertisement had higher rates on the dependant variables; probable taste, advertising believability and purchase intention, compared to the non-celebrity version. Additionally, a study done by Gardner and Schuman (1986) revealed that fifty-three percent of respondents reported that sponsorship (endorsements) increases the likelihood of brand purchase. Agrawal and Kamukura (1995) found that on average firms announcing contracts with celebrities experienced a gain of 44 percent in excess returns. Also a study by Atkin and Block (1983) emphasised that advertisements that had celebrities appearing in them had more positive effects on consumers than those with non-celebrities. Previous research indicated the importance celebrity endorsements have on consumer behaviour. Atkin and Block (1983) consider that the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement is due to the fact consumers believe that the celebrity does not really work for the endorsement fee, but are motivated by genuine affection for the product. Moreover, Tripp et al (1994) showed that the number of exposures to a celebrity advertisement negatively influenced consumers intention to purchase. For an advertisement campaign to have the desired effectiveness on consumers behaviour, the selected celebrity must have certain attributes to attract and retain the consumers attention. Vital Attributes of a Celebrity Endorser 66 Marketers try to select individuals whose traits will maximise message influence. The source may be knowledgeable, popular, and/or physically attractive; typifying the target audience; or have the power to reward or punish the receiver in some manner. Kelman (1961) developed three basic categories of source attributes: credibility, attractiveness and power. Each influences the recipients attitudes or behaviour through a different process (Belch and Belch, 2009). Source Attributes and Receiver Processing Model (Belch and Belch, 2009) Credibility 352 Credibility is the extent to which the receiver sees the source as having relevant knowledge, skills experience and trust to give unbiased and objective information (Byrne et al, 2003). Source credibility is used to imply a communicators positive characteristics that will affect the receivers acceptance of a message (Ohanian, 1990). It can be assumed that a communicator (celebrity) can be perceived as knowledgeable and a person with expertise. Furthermore the source needs to be trustworthy, honest, ethical and believable (Belch and Belch, 2009). These two attributes, which a celebrity must have to be a successful endorser in an advertising campaign, are discussed more in-depth below. Expertise: Belch and Belch (2009) states that a spokesperson is often chosen because of their knowledge, experience, and expertise in a particular product or service area. Ohanian (1990, cited in Belch and Belch, 2009) found that the perceived expertise of celebrity endorsers was more important in explaining purchase intentions than their attractiveness or trustworthiness. Ohanian also suggests that the celebrity spokespeople are more effective when they are knowledgeable, experienced and qualified to talk about the product they are endorsing. Source expertise in persuasive communication, indicates generally that the sources perceived expertise has a positive impact on attitude change (Horai et al, 1974). Trustworthiness: In comparison to expertise, a celebrity needs to be trustworthy when endorsing a product or service. This is based on how honest the celebrity is about what they say concerning the brand (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2009). Additionally, Belch and Belch (2009) argues that while expertise is important, the target audience must also find the source (celebrity) believable. Ohanian (1990) maintains that when a celebrity is perceived more trustworthy, the message will be more effective and the receiver will be more integrated. Thus, trustworthiness is the degree of confidence in the communicators intentions to communicate the assertions they consider being most valid (Ohanian, 1990). Belch and Belch (2009, Pp 179) argues that information from a credible source influences beliefs, opinions, attitudes and behaviour through a process called internalisation which occurs when the receiver adopts the opinion of the credible communicator since they believe information from the source is accurate. Once the receiver internalises an opinion or attitude, it become integrated into their belief system and may be maintained even after the source of the message is forgotten. Attractiveness 352 Ohanian (1990) suggests that physical attractiveness is an important cue in an individuals initial judgement of another person. Source attractiveness is related to physical attributes such as: Similarity, Likability and Familiarity (Belch and Belch, 2009). Similarity is a supposed resemblance between the source and the receiver of the message, while familiarity refers to the knowledge of the source through exposure. Likability is affection for the source as a result of physical appearance, behaviour or other personality traits (Belch and Belch, 2009 pp 182). Source attractiveness leads to persuasion through a process of identification whereby the receiver is motivated to seek some type of relationship with the source (celebrity) and thus adopts similar beliefs, attitudes, preferences, or behaviour. Further more if the source (celebrity) changes position, the receiver may also change (Belch and Belch, 2009 pp 182). Marketers acknowledge that receivers of persuasive communications are more likely to attend to and identify with individuals they find likable or similar to themselves. The three attributes similarity, likability and familiarity are explored in more detail below. Similarity: In terms of similarity, Belch and Belch (2009) claims that individuals are more likely to be influenced by a message coming from someone with whom they feel a sense of similarity. If the communicator (celebrity) and receiver have similar needs, goals, interests and lifestyles, the position advocated by the source is better understood and received. Likability: Marketers recognise the value of using spokespeople who are admired: TV and movie stars, athletes, musicians, and other popular figures. Marketers believe that the use of a popular celebrity will favourably influence consumers feeling, attitudes and purchase behaviour. However the company must consider a number of factors when deciding to use a celebrity spokesperson such as over-shadowing the product/brand, being overexposed and the target audiences receptivity and risks to the advertiser (Belch and Belch, 2009) Familiarity: In the celebrity endorsement context, familiarity has been defined as knowledge of the source through exposure (Erdogan, 1999 pp 299). According to Belch and Belch (2009) familiarity can be considered as the level of knowledge a celebrity possess of a brand. When an organisation considers choosing a celebrity for their advertising campaign, they need to analyse the previous knowledge a celebrity has or how they will utilise their knowledge in the exposure stage. Power 103 The final characteristic Kelmans classification is source power. A source has the power when they can actually administer reward or punishment to the receiver. When a receiver perceives a source as having power, the influence process occurs through compliance. The receiver accepts the persuasive influence of the source and acquiesces to their position in hope of obtaining a favourable reaction or avoiding punishment. However the power source characteristic is very difficult to apply in a non-personal influence situation such as advertising. A communicator in an advert cannot apply any sanctions to the receiver or determine whether compliance has occurred (Belch and Belch, 2009) Match-Up Theory 256 From the literature it has become evident that a spokesperson interacts with the type of brand being promoted. According to Friedman and Friedman (1979 cited in Atkin and Block, 1983), a celebrity spokesperson is more effective for products high in psychological or social risks relative to a normal spokesperson; such elements include good taste, self image and opinion of others. Various research investigations have explored the congruency between celebrity endorsers and brands to examine the effectiveness of using celebrities to advertise products/brands. (E.g. Marin, 1996; Till and Busler, 1998; Till and Shimp, 1998). Results have revealed that a number of celebrity endorsement have shown to be very successful whereas others have completely failed, this results in the termination of the respective celebrity communicator (Walker, 1992). However, assuming that an individual just has to be famous to represent a successful spokesperson would be incorrect (Solomon, 2008). The match-up theory suggests that the effectiveness depends on the appropriate match between an endorser and the product/brand (Till and Busler, 1998). Empirical studies on the congruency theory frequently focus on the physical attractiveness of the celebrity endorser (Till and Busler, 1998). According to Kahle and Homer (1985) attractive sources are more effective in terms of attitude change when advertising brands that enhance individuals attractiveness. Although Ohanian (1991) recognises a popular individuals ability to create awareness and initiate desire for an advertisement, Ohanian concludes that this may not necessarily change consumers attitude toward the endorsed brand and that for a celebrity spokesperson to be truly effective, they should be knowledgeable, experienced and qualified to talk about the product. A deeper insight in the complex process of celebrity endorsement is provided by the meaning transfer model, this will be discussed in section 1.12. . Fit Factor 112 The determinant of the match between celebrity and brand depends on the degree of perceived fit between brand (brand name, attributes) and celebrity image (Misra and Beatty, 1990 cited in Erdogan, 1999). Miisra and Beatty (1990) suggest that when a celebrity endorsers a brand, the characteristics of that celebrity may be compared with the advertised attributes of the brand by the audience for congruence or fit with their available person-schema. The degree of congruence between the new information (the brand attributes) and the existing information (the celebritys characteristics) may then influence the level of recall of the new information. Numerous investigation in social cognition have discovered that usually congruent information is remembered better that information incongruent or irrelevant with existing schemas (Cantor and Mischel, 1979; Cohen, 1981; Taylor and Cracker, 1981) Balance Theory 234 This theory works within the framework of cognitive consistency, a principle stating that consumers value harmony among their thoughts and that they are motivated to reconcile incongruent thoughts. The evaluation of an object is affected by how the evaluation will fit with other related attitudes held by the consumer. Thus, balance theory is useful in explaining attitude formation and attitude change. Balance theory (Heider, 1958 cited in Dean, 2002) considers relations among objects the consumer may perceive belong together, linked by association, proximity, similarity, ownership, or common fate. A balance theory explanation of endorsement suggests three elements linked in a triangular relationship: the endorser (celebrity), the product/brand and the consumer. A celebrity may desire to endorse a product/brand, believing that the product/brand is a good strategic fit. This establishes a positive sentiment connection between the celebrity and the brand (one side of the triangle). If t he consumer has pre-existing positive sentiment toward the endorser (the second side of the triangle), it is likely the consumer will form an attitude or change an existing attitude to be positive toward the brand (the third side of the triangle). This occurs because consumers desire harmony in their beliefs, and it would be unstable (unbalanced) to have a positively valued element linked to a negatively valued element. However alternatively the consumer could re-evaluate sentiment toward the brand to make it negative and hold a negative attitude of the endorser; this would also balance (Dean, 2002). Meaning Transfer Model 214 McCracken (1989) explains the effectiveness of celebrity spokespersons by assessing the meanings consumers associate with the endorser and eventually transfer to the brand. Kambitsis et al (2002 pp 160) shares this perspective and found that athletes personality was an important factor when influencing specific target groups, to which such personalities are easily recognisable and much admired. McCracken suggests a meaning transfer model, which is made up of three subsequent stages. Firstly, the meaning related with the celebrity moves from the endorser to the product/brand. Thus, meanings attributed to the celebrity become associated with the brand in the consumers mind. Finally, in the consumption process, the brands meaning is acquired by the customer. The third stage of the model illustrates the significance of the consumers role in the process of celebrity endorsed brands. The meaning tr